The use of data is essential in identifying and implementing the changes necessary for more efficient and effective learning environments. Bernhardt (1998a) explains that data help organizations in several ways.

Bernhardt (1998b) also explains that there are factors over which educators have no control. These factors include students' backgrounds and demographics. In order to meet each student's needs, other factors should be considered.

This figure illustrates the data educators can collect from individual measures. The overlapping sections of the graphic demonstrate the enhanced levels of analyses that can be used when serving the individual needs of students.

(Adapted from Multiple Measures, Data Analysis [Bernhardt 1998b]).

While Bernhardt uses a more detailed figure that demonstrates additional factors and variables, this course will only focus on these four major categories.

For more information, click the circles below.

In the context of an educational setting, demographic data sheds light on the students being served. Demographics allow educators to analyze how well particular groups of students have been served in the past and if changes must be made to meet the needs of future students.

Disaggregation of demographic data

• allows educators to isolate and focus on the variations among different groups of the same population, and
• helps schools understand if, and which, subgroups are responding to the school’s current programs and processes.

When looking at demographic data, an educator could review items associated with student achievement. Take a moment to review the graphic and consider how much can be learned through demographic data.

Bernhardt suggests that it is best to disaggregate a few rather than many subpopulations. Having too many subgroups or very small group sizes may not be useful.

Perceptions are a person's way of thinking about or understanding someone or something. For example, a small child may perceive all dogs to be friendly. As he grows older, he learns that some dogs can be aggressive or dangerous. His perception of dogs changed.

Perceptions are based on knowledge and previous personal experiences. A person's actions are guided by what he values, believes, and/or perceives. As educators, it is not only important to consider the perceptions of others, but to also consider one’s own perceptions, especially in the context of a classroom or school.

Think about the vast knowledge and personal experiences within one classroom. Students' perceptions of the educational setting may be influenced by their  

• feelings about being part of a learning environment; 
• values and beliefs about self, education, etc.;
• attitudes about working with others, meeting a deadline, etc.; and 
• observations of others within the classroom.

The list above provides only a few examples. It is challenging to think that our classrooms are filled with individuals—teachers and students—who have very different ways of thinking about and understanding their classroom, their school, their community, etc. These many, many perceptions should be considered when building efficient and effective learning environments. 

Positive and Negative Perceptions

Think about your organization's vision, purpose, or mission. What were the beliefs or values upon which it was founded? How is it perceived by staff, students, families, and/or community members? Positive and negative perceptions affect an organization's ability to establish and build upon its goals and objectives.

Examples of areas organizations may find challenging to successfully implement include

• programs,
• processes,
• curriculum guidelines,
• instructional approaches, and
• interventions.

These areas can be viewed both positively or negatively, depending on individual or public perception.

There are several approaches to assess the perceptions that make up an organization. The most common approach is the use of questionnaires. Other approaches include observations, person-to-person interviews, telephone surveys, and focus groups.

Remember, it is important to consider the perceptions of all stakeholders, including students, teachers, parents, and administrators.

Increases in student achievement and school improvement require educators to consistently measure student learning and to know how to use the data appropriately. Most educators evaluate outcomes of students' learning for accountability and for the improvement of instructional programs. These measures, however, can also provide guidance and inform decisions in other areas. Consider the three areas listed below.

Various Methods of Measuring Student Learning

Student learning should be measured through various methods. In addition, students should have more than one opportunity and assessment method to demonstrate their knowledge.

Academic tasks encompass more than a finished product. Teachers might assess less tangible objectives such as students' engagement with the learning or their performance in completing tasks.

Teacher-made assessments may include tests, quizzes, and informal assessments using rubrics.

Standardized assessments may include norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessments.

Of the four major measures of data (demographics, school processes, perception, and student learning), school processes are the only measures that educators have control of in an educational setting. Schools cannot control their student population, students’ social and educational backgrounds, or how students think, but schools can control what they are doing to help students learn (Bernhardt, 1998b).

"School processes include programs, curriculum, instruction and assessment strategies, interventions, and all other classroom practices that teachers use to help students learn" (Bernhardt, 2003, p. 1). 

"School Processes" is the only measure of data controllable by schools.

School- and Classroom-Level Processes

School processes occur at two levels: school and classroom.

Reflect on the following questions:

How do school-level and classroom-level processes correlate to achieve the school’s purpose or vision? 

How will educators know if certain school processes are building a continuum of student learning?

As Bernhardt (1998b) states, "Just looking at student achievement measures focuses teachers only on the results, it does not give them information about what they need to do to get different results" (p. 5).

In addition to analyzing assessment data, it is equally important to look at other variables (demographics, perceptions, student learning, and school processes), consider the context in which learning is occurring, and work to meet the needs of all students.